Changes of state II

This task is about finding the features of a science text.

Read the text below: Changes of State. This text explains a scientific idea. As you read, think of the different language features used in the text.

Changes of State

An important idea in science is: nothing can be created or destroyed although things can be changed. Some changes are permanent, others are temporary.

Temporary changes include "changes of state". For example, water can exist in different states. It can be in a solid state (ice), a liquid state (water), or as a gas (water vapour). When water freezes it changes state from a liquid to a solid. When ice melts it changes state from a solid to a liquid. These changes are easy to understand because the water can still be seen (even though it is in a different state or form).

A more difficult idea to understand is evaporation. Evaporation is when a liquid becomes a gas. An example of evaporation is when a puddle dries up. The water (which is a liquid) turns into water vapour (which is a gas). The water still exists but it cannot be seen any more when it is a gas. Another example of evaporation is wet clothes drying on the clothes line. The water in the clothes turns into water vapour that goes into the air and the clothes become dry. The rate of evaporation is affected by different things. For instance on very humid days (when there is already a lot of water vapour in the air) clothes dry slowly.

Condensation is when a gas becomes a liquid (the opposite of evaporation). A common example of condensation is when the windows "fog up" on a cold night. Some of the water vapour in the air changes into tiny droplets of water when it hits the cold glass.

Look for examples of the following text features in 'Changes of State':

Text feature: Each paragraph has an opening general statement. What is an "opening general statement"? Usually 1-3 sentences at the beginning of the text that introduces what is being written about. The opening general statement will be followed by specific statements. In the examples below, the opening general statement is written in italics.

Examples:

Friction occurs when objects rub together. The soles of shoes are designed to create friction so that people don't slip and slide as they walk…
Hoar frosts occur when there is fog and the temperature stays at or below zero degrees for at least 24 hours. When this happens, everything gets covered in frost crystals. Hoar frosts are common in Central Otago…

Find the opening general statement in 'Changes of State':

ii)

Text feature: Each paragraph has a topic sentence. What is a topic sentence? A topic sentence tells what the paragraph is about. In the example below, the topic sentence is written in italics. It tells us that the paragraph is about how bacteria cause tooth decay.

Example: Bacteria in a person's mouth change sugars into acids, and these acids cause tooth decay. The mouth contains a wide variety of bacteria but only a few are believed to cause tooth decay. Bacteria collect around the teeth and gums in a sticky, creamy-coloured mass called plaque…

Find two examples of a topic sentence in 'Changes of State':

1.
2.

iii)

Text Feature: Meaning is built up step by step. How is meaning built up step by step? One piece of information is given, then more information on the same topic is added so the reader can gradually build an understanding.

Example: First, the writer tells us: "Estuaries are those parts of a bay or harbour where fresh water and sea water meet." The writer adds information about the fresh water by telling us: "Most of the fresh water enters through rivers and streams, and the sea water comes in with the tide."

At the beginning of paragraph two it says, "Temporary changes include 'changes of state'". Find two examples of information that add to this:

1.
2.

iv)

Text feature: Language that introduces examples. Why are examples important? Because they show us what an idea is like in real life.

Examples: "An example of this idea is…" "For instance…" "This is illustrated by…"

Find two examples of language that introduces examples:

1.
2.

Text feature: Technical language.

What is "technical" language"? Technical language is used when we talk or write about particular topics. It is not used much in our everyday lives.

Examples: Intestine, colon, absorption (technical language to do with digestion).

Find four examples of technical language in 'Changes of State':

1.
2.
3.
4.

vi)

Text Feature: Language that tells about the action.

Which kinds of language? Language that tells us about the "doings" and the "happenings". These are not imaginative words, only ones to do with facts.

Examples:

Lightning is caused when static electricity builds up in storm clouds.
Sometimes, a massive bolt of electricity bursts through the cloud.

Find two examples of language in 'Changes of State' that tell us about the action:

1.
2.

vii)

Text Feature: Timeless language.

What is "timeless" language"? When what is written is not linked to any particular time.

Example: Waves bring sand from the sea and dump it on the beach (timeless).

[Not: Waves brought sand from the sea and dumped it on the beach (we know this happened in the past). Not: Waves are bringing sand from the sea and dumping it on the beach (we know this is happening right now).]

Find one example of timeless language in 'Changes of State':

viii)

Text feature: Objective language.

What does "objective" mean? Fair, impartial. Not emotional. When a writer uses objective language they don't tell us how they personally feel about the topic. They just give us the facts.

Example: Bloodworms kill their prey by injecting poison through their fangs.

[Not: Blood worms are ugly, brutal killers. Not: Bloodworms must be wiped off the planet! Not: Who do they think they are calling bloodworms "ugly"?]

Find one example of objective language in 'Changes of State':

ix)

Text Feature: Compact Language.

What is "compact" language"? Language that uses as few words as possible.

Examples:

We can use six words by writing, "Going to hospital might be necessary" or we can use four by writing, "Hospitalisation might be necessary".
We can use seven words by writing, "How waste is transported is the topic" or we can use five by writing, "Waste transportation is the topic".

Complete the table below:

We can write something by using more words	…or by using fewer words
When a liquid becomes a gas
When a gas becomes a liquid

Task administration:

Explain to the students that they first need to read "Changes of State", then look for an example or examples of particular features in that text.
Show the students where each text feature is explained, e.g., What is an "opening general statement"?
Show the students where examples of each text feature are given, e.g., Examples: Friction occurs when objects rub together. The soles of shoes are designed to create friction so that people don't slip and slide as they walk…
Explain that the examples given do not come from the text of "Changes of state".
Next, check that students understand the examples they need to find are in "Changes of State ".
Explain that for most items they should quote (copy the exact words) from "Changes of state" when they write their answers; however, there will be times when they will probably prefer to use their own words.
You may need to check that the students (especially ESOL) understand what the referring words used in "Changes of state" refer to, i.e., others (x1, line 2); it (x1 line 4; x2, line 5; x1, line 10; x1, line 11; x1, line 17); these (x1, line 6); which (x1, line 9; x1, line 10); that (x1, line 12). For more information on referring words, see Thinking about how language works.
You may need to check that the students (especially ESOL) understand the embedded clauses which is a liquid (line 9) and when there is already a lot of water vapour in the air (line 14). For more information on embedded clauses, see Thinking about how language works.
The term "compact language" is used in ix) Text Feature: Compact Language. The usual terminology is "condensed language" (the wording has been changed to avoid confusion over the words "condensed" and "condensation"). If you think your students will not be confused, change the word "compact" to "condensed".
Explain that as long as they can justify their responses, their ideas will be accepted.
This task can be done individually or in groups.
Responses can be discussed by teacher and student only, or within larger groups. Group discussion has the advantage of giving students opportunities to consider others' ideas and to practise justifying their own.

Diagnostic and formative information:

This resource was trialled by 100 students. The trial involved Y7 and Y8 students from 6 primary and intermediate schools.

NOTE: There are several types of explanation. These include: sequential, causal, factual, theoretical, and consequential explanations. The exact form of a text type, e.g., a theoretical explanation such as "Changes of State", will vary from instance to instance. However in general, theoretical explanations introduce and illustrate a theoretical principle and/ or explain events which are counter-intuitive, that is, events that do not seem true when assessed using intuition or gut feelings.

b) Look for examples of these text features in "Changes of state":

i) Text feature: An opening general statement – most of the students were able to find the opening general statement.

Correct responses: An important idea in science is: nothing can be created or destroyed although things can be changed. Some changes are permanent, others are temporary, i.e., all of the first paragraph can be justified as general information given prior to specific information on temporary changes beginning in the next paragraph. However, the first sentence, i.e., An important idea in science is: nothing can be created or destroyed although things can be changed can also be justified as correct because the second sentence, i.e., "Some changes are permanent, others are temporary" can be argued as being specific information about the types of changes. The most important point here is that students must be able to justify the decisions they make.
Incorrect responses included: An important idea in science is: (this is not a complete statement).

ii) Text feature: Each paragraph has a topic sentence – about half the students were able to find two examples of a topic sentence.

Correct responses: An important idea in science is: nothing can be created or destroyed although things can be changed; Temporary changes include "changes of state"; A more difficult idea to understand is evaporation; Condensation is when a gas becomes a liquid (the opposite of evaporation), i.e., any of the first sentences of the four paragraphs.
Incorrect responses: A small group of students responded with more than one sentence at the start of a paragraph or only part of the first sentence of a paragraph. These students may have responded in this way because they did not understand the meaning of "sentence". All were students who struggled with the task in general.

A small group did not attempt the task. This may have been because they did not understand the meaning of "sentence" and/ or "paragraph".i

ii) Text feature: Meaning is built up step by step – most students were able to find two examples of information that adds to "Temporary changes include 'changes of state'".

Correct responses: All information following "Temporary changes include 'changes of state'" adds to that statement.
Incorrect responses: There were no incorrect responses – those who did not get this item correct did not attempt it.

NOTE: Teachers who suspect a student may have guessed their response should add a paragraph to the end of "Changes of State" that does not add to "Temporary changes include 'changes of state'". For example, if a paragraph is added giving an example of a permanent change of state, students identifying information in it would clearly be incorrect. An example of such a paragraph follows:

An example of a permanent change is when a raw egg (a liquid) is cooked (and so becomes a solid). This change is permanent because the proteins in the egg are damaged during the cooking process and can not be repaired.

iv) Text feature: Language that introduces examples – most of the students were able to find two examples of language that introduces examples.

Correct responses included: For example… (paragraph 2); An example of… (paragraph 3); Another example of… (paragraph 3); For instance… (paragraph 3); A common example of… (paragraph 4).
Incorrect responses included: An important idea in science is that nothing can be created or destroyed although things can be changed; Temporary changes include "changes of state"; A more difficult idea to understand is evaporation; Condensation is when gas becomes a liquid. These responses are all topic sentences. It is possible that students who made these responses did so because they confused the function of a topic sentence (to introduce the topic of the paragraph) with language that introduces examples.

v) Text feature: Technical language – about half the students were able to find four examples of technical language.

Correct responses included: changes of state; state; water vapour; vapour; form; evaporation; condensation; liquid; solid; humid; droplets.|
Incorrect responses included: permanent; temporary; exists; affected. These may have been words students could not decode and/ or did not know the meaning of and therefore guessed to be technical. They cannot be justified as technical because they are not specific to a particular topic, field, or academic discipline.

Distinguishing between technical and other types of vocabulary is not always straight forward. There will often be disagreement about whether a word is technical or not, and it is important to note that the point of learning to identify technical vocabulary is to be able to identify words that are important to a text, and therefore important to its comprehension. One hundred percent accuracy is not the point, nor is consensus regarding whether a word is technical or not. However, if you wish to refine your understanding of the topic, the following categories will help.

A technical word is defined as one that is recognisably specific to a particular topic, field, or discipline. But, as Nation (2001) points out, there are degrees of "technicalness" depending on how restricted a word is to a particular area. These degrees can be shown by classifying words into one of four categories, and presenting examples of words in each category (see Nation, 2001, pp. 198-199).Category 1: The word appears rarely outside this particular field.Science: plate tectonicsEnglish: morpheme

Category 2: The word is used both inside and outside this particular field but not with the same meaning.Science: cellEnglish: voice

Category 3: The word is used both inside and outside this particular field, but the majority of its uses with a particular meaning are in this field. The specialised meaning it has in this field is readily accessible through its meaning outside the field.Science: moonEnglish: theme

Category 4: The word is more common in this field than elsewhere. There is little or no specialisation in meaning, though someone knowledgeable in the field would have a more precise idea of its meaning.Science: earthquakeEnglish: word

vi) Text feature: Language that tells about the action – most of the students were able to find two examples of language that tells about the action.

Correct responses included: freezes; melts; dries up; exists; drying; goes; dry; "fog up"; hits. These are material processes (also called action verbs).
Incorrect responses included: turns into; becomes; changes into. These are relational processes (also called linking verbs).

It is to be expected that students will confuse these two types of verbs. If you think telling your students that turns into; becomes; and changes into are not action verbs will cause confusion, don't tell them. All that is important here is that they know that theoretical explanations contain many words that express action (because they illustrate a scientific theory through outlining activities or processes, e.g., evaporation and condensation). Don't spend time on the difference between these two types of verbs unless you are certain students are ready for this level of extension.

NOTE: Explanations often contain words that connect the action or parts of a process. These words provide the reader with signposts to show how the text is developing, and are called text connectives.

vii) Text feature: Timeless language – almost all the students were able to find one example of timeless language.

Correct responses: Any section of the text can be used as an example of timeless language.
Incorrect responses: There were no incorrect responses – those who did not get vii) correct did not attempt it.

In discussion with students when this resource was piloted with small groups, prior to being trialled nationally, it became clear that they were not able to analyse the text in order to decide if the text was written as if the action happened in the past, e.g., the windows "fogged up", if it was written as if the action is happening right now, e.g. the windows are "fogging up", or if the text is not linked to any time (timeless), e.g., the windows "fog up". Asking students "Did it happen in the past… has there been a gap in time between when it finished and now?" or "Is it happening now?" will help you identify those having difficulty analysing text in this way.

NOTE: Teachers who suspect a student may have guessed their response should explore using language that is not timeless. For example, The water (which was a liquid), turned into water vapour (which was a gas). The water still existed but it could not be seen any more when it was a gas.

viii) Text feature: Objective language – almost all the students were able to find one example of objective language.

Correct responses: Any section of the text can be used as an example of objective language.
Incorrect responses: There were no incorrect responses – those who did not get viii) correct did not attempt it.

NOTE: Teachers who suspect a student may have guessed their response should insert several items of subjective language into "Changes of state", then ask the students to identify the subjective language (i.e., the language that is not objective). For example, "A common example is when windows fog up on a cold night – don't you hate it when that happens?" and "For example, there is a peculiar idea in science that says water can exist in different states".

ix) Text feature: Compact language – most students were able to complete the table.

Correct responses:

We can write something by using more words	…or by using fewer words
When a liquid becomes a gas	evaporation
When a gas becomes a liquid	condensation

Incorrect responses: There were no incorrect responses – those who did not get ix) correct did not attempt it.

Next steps:

Students who had difficulty distinguishing between general and specific information.

See i) Text feature: An opening general statement.

See Variable oystercatchers II

Students who had difficulty finding technical language. See v) Text feature: Technical language.

Why is the technical vocabulary in "Changes of state" difficult?When reading "Changes of state" students meet familiar words used in unfamiliar ways. For example state may be known to students as a verb, as in "State your argument" meaning to express clearly in speech or writing. They may also know the word as a noun meaning a nation, government, or region with its own government. But here it is used as a noun to mean the condition of something at a particular time, how it appears, or the form in which it exists. Form may be known by students as a noun to mean a long bench seat with no back, to mean a printed document with blank spaces where information is added, or to mean a sports person's current standard of play. They may also know the word as a verb meaning to bring parts together, to make or create. But here it is used as a noun to mean visible shape, the way something exists or appears.

Students who had difficulty finding technical language, and even those who did not, will benefit from learning to think about the underlying concept of words. See below:

Key Competencies

The following section Underlying concepts is presented as an example of how you might integrate the Key Competencies and reading. In particular, it exemplifies how you might integrate the Thinking Key Competency and reading through a focus on the underlying concept of words. In the table below, the Thinking Key Competency has the largest bolded font because it is most important to this particular example.

Underlying concepts

Sometimes the various meanings of a particular word are quite different from each other. For example, "bark" meaning the sound a dog makes and "bark" meaning the skin of a tree. Words like this, which have the same spelling but completely different meanings, are called homonyms. Homonyms should be learnt as different words, and preferably at different times.

Some of the meanings of a particular word, however, will show a clear relationship. For example "head", meaning the upper or front part of a body, containing the brain, mouth, and sense organs, and "head" meaning a person in charge; a director or leader. These words share an underlying concept which is appropriate for the range of its meanings, i.e., the upper part of something. An example you may wish to use with your students is the word "fork". The underlying concept of "fork" is a two pronged shape – the fork you can eat with, a fork in a road, fork lightening etc. (you may need to explain that the first forks used for eating had two prongs, not four as is the case now; you may also wish to draw these shapes on the whiteboard). If you grew up watching cowboys and Indians on TV, and were always perplexed when (using "fork" as a metaphor) the Indian chief said, "The white man speaks with forked tongue", all becomes clear when you consider the underlying concept of the word rather than just the eating utensil.

Defining a word by looking for the concept that runs through all its uses reduces the number of words to learn. Instead of having to learn three meanings of "fork" learners have only one meaning to learn. If you are not sure if you are dealing with one word or more than one word, for example the word "branch" meaning a part of a tree which grows out from the trunk or a bough, and "branch" meaning a division of a large organization, group, etc., ask yourself if they share an underlying concept (i.e., a smaller extension from the base or central point). If you do discover an underlying concept, support your students to find and learn it, rather than supporting them to learn the words as separate items.

Students who confused material processes (action verbs) and relational processes (linking verbs).

See vi) Language that tells about the action.

See Moa report (The Next steps of this resource contain several sections that deal with these verbs.)

Students who had difficulty with compact (condensed) language.

See ix) Compact language.

NOTE: The usual term is "condensed" rather than "compact" language. The use of "compact" in the student task was thought necessary to avoid confusion over the words "condensed" and "condensation". (Even though these words share the same underlying concept, it was believed that most students would not know how to use the underlying concept in order to understand the meaning of "condensed" language). In future, use the term "condensed language" with your students.In talking to young children, we would say "when gas becomes a liquid"; we would not instantly use the word "condensation". This is because we implicitly understand that children think in terms of actions and happenings (e.g., "when a gas becomes a liquid"); it is only later that they learn to change these verbs into nouns or things (e.g., "condensation"). This process of changing verbs, and sometimes other words, into nouns is called nominalisation. Nominalisation is a common example of the condensed language of science texts.

"Changes of State" is written in a way that makes comprehending nominalisations relatively easy. A process is presented in the child-friendly form of an action or a happening, e.g., "Evaporation is when a liquid becomes a gas". It is only later, when it can be taken for granted that readers know what evaporation means, that the whole clause "Evaporation is when liquid becomes a gas" is replaced by the noun "evaporation" e.g., "An example of evaporation is…." and "Another example of evaporation is…" Even though this text has been written in a way that supports readers to understand nominalisations, many students will still have difficulty comprehending them. Halliday and Martin (1993:82), explain some of the reasons behind this difficulty:

[Nominalisations] are not just another way of saying the same thing. In a certain sense, they present a different view of the world. As we grew up, using our language to learn with and to think with, we have come to expect…that nouns are for people and things, verbs for actions and events. Now we find that almost everything has been turned into a noun. We have to reconstruct our mental image of the world so that it becomes a world made out of things, rather than the world of happening – events with things taking part in them – that we were accustomed to. Some of the problem may also be ideological: the student may want to resist this view of reality that he feels is being imposed on him by the language of science.

Although texts at this level usually scaffold students towards understanding nominalisations, you will often need to show students how a nominalisation connects back to information that has already been stated, for example, how"evaporation" connects back to "when a liquid becomes a gas". There will sometimes be a large amount of text between the information already stated and the nominalisation. During shared or guided reading, use charts to make the connection explicit:

Information that has already been stated	Nominalisation
When lava erupts from a volcano, it cools and hardens…	This hardening…
The colour black absorbs heat from the sun…	Absorption occurs because…
When cows burp and fart, they emit carbon dioxide…	Each emission…
Brushing your teeth twice a day will help prevent cavities forming…	The formation…
Caterpillars can grow very quickly…	Growth rates depend on…

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Changes of state II

Changes of state II